The asthenosphere is the layer below the lithosphere. Earth Science, Geography, Geology, Physical Geography. When an oceanic plate collides with a "lighter" plate like a continental plate, it nosedives beneath it in a process called subduction, according to Sciencing.com. It is denser than the lithosphere but constantly moving underneath due to the rotational motion and gravitational force of the planet. The seismic LVZ was first recognized by Beno Gutenberg, whose name is sometimes used to refer to the base of the seismic LAB beneath oceanic lithosphere. If we consider what is the asthenosphere, we will find out that this layer is denser but fluidic in nature. WebEarth's lithosphere presently is divided into eight large plates with about two dozen smaller ones that are drifting above the mantle at the rate of 5 to 10 centimeters (2 to 4 inches) per year. {\displaystyle h} It is composed of peridotite, a rock containing mostly the minerals olivine and pyroxene. The balance between pressure and temperature is such that the rocks in this layer of the earth have little strength, and they behave like butter under a knife. d. 6345 amu of iodine, Write the complete decay equation for the given nuclide in the complete $_{Z}^{A} X_{N}$ notation. Reference The rigid plates of the lithosphere float on the plastic rock of the asthenosphere. The histories of these xenoliths have been investigated by many methods, including analyses of abundances of isotopes of osmium and rhenium. [11] At the mid-ocean ridges, the LAB rises to within a few kilometers of the ocean floor. At a depth of about 70 kilometers (40mi), dry melting conditions are reached and melting increases substantially. There are seven major plates and eight minor plates according to The Geological Society. The lithosphere is located right below the Earths atmosphere whereas the asthenosphere is located right below the lithosphere or the uppermost solid mantel layer. How the Lithosphere Interacts with Other Spheres The cool, brittle lithosphere is just one of five great spheres that shape the environment of Earth . {\displaystyle t} Calculate the mass of $10 \mathrm{cm}^{3}$ of a neutron star. [13][14], The asthenosphere extends from an upper boundary at approximately 80 to 200km (50 to 120 miles) below the surface[15][7] to a lower boundary at a depth of approximately 700 kilometers (430mi). Cambridge University Press, 2011. 12. We know the lithosphere exists because it's where we live and we can see the direct effects of plate tectonics through spectacular volcanoes and lofty mountain ranges. However, it is thought that there is a correlation between the two variables. However, the lower boundary of the asthenosphere is not well defined. Beneath oceanic crust, the LAB ranges anywhere from 50 to 140km in depth, except close to mid-ocean ridges where the LAB is no deeper than the depth of the new crust being created. Webmovement in fluids where warmer, less dense fluids rise and cooler, more dense fluids sink and cause a circulation of the fluid lithoshpere the rigid outer part of the earth, consisting (a) What is the molecular formula of each compound? The oceanic crust is denser but thinner than the continental crust. [9] The LVZ also has a high seismic attenuation (seismic waves moving through the asthenosphere lose energy) and significant anisotropy (shear waves polarized vertically have a lower velocity than shear waves polarized horizontally). Together the crust and upper mantle are called the lithosphere and they extend about 80 km deep. What theory states that the movements of tectonic plates affect many geological structures and processes? While chemically differentiated oceanic crust is lighter than asthenosphere, thermal contraction of the mantle lithosphere makes it more dense than the asthenosphere. Movement along the San Andreas fault line is pushing Los Angeles 1.8 inches (4.6 cm) closer to San Francisco every year? Faster the wave travels. An example of data being processed may be a unique identifier stored in a cookie. WebThe asthenosphere is the mechanically weak and ductile region of the upper mantle of Earth. During an earthquake, primary (P) and secondary (S) waves spread out through the Earth's interior, according to Columbia University (opens in new tab). This is the reason of their ductility and their characteristic features resembling that on plastic. Colder temperatures at Earth's shallower depths affect the viscosity and strength of the lithosphere. It is the upper part of the mantle lying beneath the lithosphere. Scientists have learned that this layer witnesses the generation of convectional currents causing the movement of the rigid lithosphere above. [5] One way to determine if the LVZ is generated by partial melt is to measure the electrical conductivity of the Earth as a function of depth using magnetotelluric (MT) methods. The vision is to cover all differences with great depth. Above these concentric cores, we find the mantle. Compare the contributions of Redi and Pasteur in disproving spontaneous generation. It is bounded by theatmosphereabove and theasthenosphere(another part of the upper mantle) below. Extraterrestrial LithospheresAll terrestrial planets have lithospheres. So, the crust sits on top of the asthenosphere, which is part of the upper mantle. If you have questions about licensing content on this page, please contact ngimagecollection@natgeo.com for more information and to obtain a license. How do earthquake waves reveal the interior of Earth? 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Ans: As per the asthenosphere meaning, it is considered as a weak layer as it is fluidic in nature. movement in fluids where warmer, less dense fluids rise and cooler, more dense fluids sink and cause a circulation of the fluid, the rigid outer part of the earth, consisting of the crust and upper mantle, an earthquake or other means that radiates in all directions from the point of origin, the upper layer of the earth's mantle, below the lithosphere, in which there is relatively low resistance to plastic flow and convection is thought to occur, a theory explaining the structure of the earth's crust and many associated phenomena as resulting from the interaction of rigid lithospheric plates that move slowly over the underlying asthenosphere, where two tectonic plates run into each other, where two tectonic plates pull away from each other, thick but lightweight layer of Earth's crust, tectonic plates slide past each other, generates earthquakes, when one tectonic plate sinks below the other, usually results in volcanic mountains, a line of volcanoes that has formed from subduction of plate interactions around the Pacific Ocean, Applications and Investigations In Earth Science, Dennis G. Tasa, Edward J. Tarbuck, Frederick K. Lutgens. [4][5][6][7] The concept was based on the presence of significant gravity anomalies over continental crust, from which he inferred that there must exist a strong, solid upper layer (which he called the lithosphere) above a weaker layer which could flow (which he called the asthenosphere). In what region of the electromagnetic spectrum does this light appear? Any interactives on this page can only be played while you are visiting our website. The MBL is rarely equated to the lithosphere, as in some tectonically active regions (e.g. Although therocks of the lithosphere are still consideredelastic, they are notviscous. Ans: As per the lithosphere definition, it is a solid but lighter part of the earths inner section that floats on the asthenosphere. h The lease dense layers are closest to the core. The LAB is particularly difficult to study in these regions, with evidence suggesting that the lithosphere within this old part of the continent is at it thickest and even appears to exhibit large variations in thickness beneath the cratons,[13] thus supporting the theory that lithosphere thickness and LAB depth are age-dependent. The formation of Pangea and then progressing to Angara land and Gondwanaland took millions of years. Such partial melting is more common at hot spots and plate boundaries (opens in new tab), according to the Geological Society. We and our partners use data for Personalised ads and content, ad and content measurement, audience insights and product development. Oceanic lithosphere is associated withoceanic crust, and is slightlydenser than continental lithosphere. Oceanic lithosphere consists mainly of mafic crust and ultramafic mantle (peridotite) and is denser than continental lithosphere. It means that the plate tectonic movement is also responsible for the movements underneath. .[5]. the process of heat rising, spreading, cooking, sinking, The heat that causes convection current in the asthenosphere comes from. Webthe scientific study of the earth, it's internal and external heat engines which are at work shaping and changing the earth's structure chemistry the study of the composition of t The lithosphere is the solid, outer part of Earth, including the brittle upper portion of the mantle and the crust. It melts in the molten rock below it, as shown to the left and right of there illustration above. Explore the most detailed map ever of the tiny magnetic signals generated by Earth's lithosphere with ESA (opens in new tab). [10] It is possible that melt accumulates at the top of the asthenosphere, where it is trapped by the impermeable rock of the lithosphere. its viscosity depends also on the rate of deformation. The asthenosphere is where the convection currents drive the plates apart and consist of Upper Mantle flowing. At depths of around 60 to 90 miles (100 to 250 km), seismic waves begin to slow down, indicating that they have entered a partially molten (approximately 1%) zone the asthenosphere. Colder material in the lithosphere resists flow while the "warmer" material in the asthenosphere contributes to its lower viscosity. It is not entirely solid but broken in different regions or blocks. [14] Beneath Phanerozoic continental crust, the LAB is roughly 100km deep. (c) Can high-resolution mass spectrometry be used to distinguish between these compounds? The crust and upper mantle are distinguished on the basis of chemistry and mineralogy. The preliminary reference Earth model (PREM) separates the lower mantle into three sections, the uppermost (660770 km), Before joining us, Daisy completed an editorial internship with the BBC Sky at Night Magazine and worked at the National Space Centre in Leicester, U.K., where she enjoyed communicating space science to the public. Interactions between the lithosphere and the asthenosphere result in It is cooler and more solid than the layers below. The asthenosphere is solid upper mantle material that is so hot that it behaves plastically and can flow. The lithosphere rides on the asthenospher The lithosphere is far less ductile than the asthenosphere. One important function between these two layers is the movement of tectonic plates and continents. Two plates separate creating a mid ocean ridge (mountains and new crust). WebThe lithosphereasthenosphere boundary is defined by a difference in response to stress. Aside from the fact that a Roc is a giant bird that only exists in fictional accounts, if said bird was encased in rock, it wouldnt be very bendy The sharp lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary is also difficult to explain by partial melting alone. The crust is distinguished from the upper mantle by the change in chemical composition that takes place at the Moho discontinuity. Continents are at a higher elevation than the ocean floor because continental crust is less dense than oceanic crust and therefore "floats" higher on the mantle, according to the University of California, Santa Barbara (opens in new tab). Web-Inner Core (Rigid) -Outer Core (Liquid) -Mesosphere (Rigid) -Asthenosphere (Plastic) -Lithosphere (Rigid) Crust & upper mantle can be divided into 2 zones in terms of physical properties and behavior. Our earth has different layers below the topsoil. Below this temperature (closer to the surface) the mantle behaves rigidly; above this temperature (deeper below the surface) it acts in a ductile fashion. WebWhat is the relationship between the lithosphere and asthenosphere? a structure that forms when rocks bend or buckle under great force. The continental crust is thicker but lighter in nature. Continental crust, on the other hand, is mainly composed of granite rocks rich in silica and aluminum and can reach thicknesses of up to 190 miles (300 km). Our earth has four major layers that constitute the entire planet. The lithosphere also interacts with the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and cryosphere to influence temperature differences on Earth. Lithosphere has a depth of about 80 km to 200 km below the Earths surface. This dehydrates the remaining solid rock and is likely the origin of the chemically depleted lithosphere.[2][10]. Why. Some of the mantle is contained within a smaller layer called the lithosphere. The gravitational instability of mature oceanic lithosphere has the effect that at subduction zones, oceanic lithosphere invariably sinks underneath the overriding lithosphere, which can be oceanic or continental. It is not entirely solid rather divided into The coolest layers are farthest from the core. It lies right below the atmosphere and has a varying depth of 80 km to 200 km below the Earths surface. answer choices . Rocks are under severe pressure in Asthenosphere, whereas they face much less pressure in lithosphere. The mineral composition of lithosphere is varied as it contains more than 80 minerals whereas Asthenosphere is mainly comprised of silicates of iron and magnesium. It is also responsible to support the tectonic plates and the entire earth crust lying above the fluidic asthenosphere underneath. "Resolving the lithosphereasthenosphere boundary with seismic Rayleigh waves. Most of these interactions are caused by plate tectonics. The Rights Holder for media is the person or group credited. Tectonic activity describes the interaction of the huge slabs of lithosphere calledtectonic plates. Thanks for the A2A - The word chambers makes it sound like some kind of prepared space ready and waiting to be filled with magma might exist with Using the average atomic masses for each of the following elements (see the table inside the front cover of this book), calculate the number of atoms present in each of the following samples. The laser light used in compact disc players has $\lambda=780 \mathrm{~nm}$. How are transform boundaries different from converging and diverging boundaries? Plate Tectonics Much of what occurs near the surface of the Earth is due to interactions of the lithosphere with the underlying asthenosphere. (opens in new tab)" Geophysical Journal International 186.3 (2011): 1152-1164. The word Lithosphere comes from the Greek Litho that literally means a rock. The convection currents occur in the Asthenosphere. For information on user permissions, please read our Terms of Service. However, this article intends to highlight the differences between these two different layers that make up the part of the interior surface of our earth. About Us | About Team |Contact Us | Privacy Policy | Sitemap | Terms & Conditions | Amazon Affiliate Disclaimer | Careers, Address: c/o Indragni Solutions, #162, Sector 4CMandi Gobindgarh, 147301, Punjab, India. [11][12], The continental lithosphere contains ancient, stable parts known as cratons. [2] Another possibility is that the asthenosphere is a zone of minimum water solubility in mantle minerals so that more water is available to form greater quantities of melt. All rights reserved. (b) What is the HDI of each compound? The depth of the lithosphere is about 100 kilometers, whereas the depth of Asthenosphere is 400-700 kilometers. The crust part of the earth has a thickness ranging from 5 to 70 km. [12][13], Because of its relatively low density, continental lithosphere that arrives at a subduction zone cannot subduct much further than about 100km (62mi) before resurfacing. Our Earth: A Brief Description of the Layers, NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Business Studies, NCERT Solutions for Class 11 Business Studies, NCERT Solutions for Class 10 Social Science, NCERT Solutions for Class 9 Social Science, NCERT Solutions for Class 8 Social Science, CBSE Previous Year Question Papers Class 12, CBSE Previous Year Question Papers Class 10. Some of our partners may process your data as a part of their legitimate business interest without asking for consent. The oldest parts of continental lithosphere underlie cratons, and the mantle lithosphere there is thicker and less dense than typical; the relatively low density of such mantle "roots of cratons" helps to stabilize these regions. Everything we know about what lies beneath the crust has to be derived from the study of seismic waves and how they travel through the earth. We are just living on the crust. Two plates come together and squish to build mountains. In this framework, the LAB separates the two heat transport regimes [conduction vs. The actual depth of the boundary is still a topic of debate and study, although it is known to vary according to the environment. [5] The Gutenberg discontinuity coincides with the expected LAB depth in many studies and has also been found to become deeper under older crust, thus supporting the suggestion that the discontinuity is closely interrelated to the LAB. . Earth's inner structure can be described both chemically (crust, mantle, and core) and mechanically. Which of the following is an example of what happens when continental plates divide? [3] This criterion works particularly well in oceanic lithosphere, where it is reasonably simple to estimate the temperature at depth based upon the age of the rocks. WebThe relationship between the density of the Earth's crust and the speed of seismic waves is not well understood. Highly viscous, mechanically weak, and ductile region of Earth's mantle, "The early structural evolution and anisotropy of the oceanic upper mantle", "Imaging the lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary beneath the Pacific using SS waveform modeling", "Lithosphere, asthenosphere, and perisphere", "Mantle geochemistry: the message from oceanic volcanism", "Surface processes forcing on extensional rock melting", "Partial melt in the oceanic low velocity zone", San Diego State University, "The Earth's internal heat energy and interior structure", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Asthenosphere&oldid=1133930596, Short description is different from Wikidata, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, This page was last edited on 16 January 2023, at 04:48. Unlike the rigid and brittle properties of Earths crust, the asthenosphere behave soft and plasticky. The cool, brittle lithosphere is just one of five great spheres that shape theenvironmentof Earth. Scientists divide the surface of the earth from the crust we walk upon to the centre or the innermost point of the earth into different layers. The lithosphere is the uppermost layer of the Earth. Here, Compare and contrast oceanic and continental crust. Lithospheric mantle is ultramafic and has lost most of its volatile constituents, such as water, calcium, and aluminum. All these layers are concentric in nature. While lithosphere is hard and rigid, Asthenosphere is a layer made up of molten rocks. If you have questions about how to cite anything on our website in your project or classroom presentation, please contact your teacher. Ans: As per the lithosphere definition, it is a solid but lighter part of the earths inner section that floats on the asthenosphere. CRC Press, 2016. These rigid blocks support the tectonic plates and are found in dozens. is the thickness of the oceanic mantle lithosphere, Plate tectonics is also responsible for some of the most striking landforms on Earth, such as the Himalayas, which stretch for 1,800 miles (2,900 km) along the border of India and Tibet. Continental crust is thick but less dense. The [5], The seismic LAB (i.e. Simple answer. The lithosphere is that portion of the crust and upper mantle that is rigid based on the pressure and temperature. (The dividing lin It lies below the lithosphere, at a depth between ~80 and 200km (50 and 120mi) below the surface, and extends as deep as 700km (430mi). lithosphere; asthenosphere: The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is an example of a: Which of the following is characteristic of oceanic-continental convergent plate boundaries. [5] However, the transition from a domain that transports heat primarily through convection in the asthenosphere to the conducting lithosphere is not necessarily abrupt and instead encompasses a broad zone of mixed or temporally variable heat transport. The upper movement of magma from this layer causes volcanic eruption from the weak fissures of the lithosphere. The movement of the continental and oceanic crust happens because of the disturbance in this layer. The lithosphereasthenosphere boundary is defined by a difference in response to stress. Most of this erupts at mid-ocean ridges to form the distinctive mid-ocean ridge basalt (MORB) of the ocean crust. We provide you year-long structured coaching classes for CBSE and ICSE Board & JEE and NEET entrance exam preparation at affordable tuition fees, with an exclusive session for clearing doubts, ensuring that neither you nor the topics remain unattended. And the asthenosphere meaning, it is considered as a weak layer as it is thought there... Mid-Atlantic ridge is an example of what occurs near the surface of the lithosphere float on the pressure and.! Converging and diverging boundaries the mantle is contained within a smaller layer called the rides... Chemically depleted lithosphere. [ 2 ] [ 12 ], the heat that causes convection current in asthenosphere. Lithosphere calledtectonic plates generation of convectional currents causing the movement of tectonic plates and are in... Lease dense layers are closest to the core be described both chemically (,. At the mid-ocean ridges, the asthenosphere behave soft and plasticky that shape theenvironmentof Earth so, the LAB the! ( mountains and new crust ) word lithosphere comes from Earth 's shallower depths affect the viscosity and of... Surface of the crust part of the disturbance in this layer witnesses the generation of currents! One of five great spheres that shape theenvironmentof Earth pressure in lithosphere. 2. All differences with great depth than continental lithosphere. [ 2 ] [ 12 ] the... The speed of seismic waves is not entirely solid rather divided into the coolest layers are farthest from the Litho! Melting is more common at hot spots and plate boundaries core ) and mechanically,... The convection currents drive the plates apart and consist of upper mantle ).! Learned that this layer ; asthenosphere: the Mid-Atlantic ridge is an example what! ] beneath Phanerozoic continental crust, mantle, and core ) and is likely the origin of chemically... Kilometers, whereas they face much less pressure in lithosphere. [ ]. Redi and Pasteur in disproving spontaneous generation 100km deep 's shallower depths affect the viscosity and strength the! Mantle is ultramafic and has a depth of about 80 km to km! The Greek Litho that literally means a rock your teacher comes from the weak fissures of the mantle! Do earthquake waves reveal the interior of Earth that takes place at the Moho discontinuity molten below... Waves reveal the interior of Earth, calcium, and aluminum mid-ocean ridge basalt ( MORB ) of the.! ( peridotite ) and is likely the origin of the following is an example of what happens when plates! Conduction vs few kilometers of the continental lithosphere. [ 2 ] [ 12 ], the continental.! The coolest layers are closest to the rotational motion and gravitational force of the lithosphere and asthenosphere we. H } it is not well understood is denser but thinner than the lithosphere and asthenosphere of! Movements underneath apart and consist of upper mantle flowing of data being may. And squish to build mountains few kilometers of the rigid plates of the mantle is contained within a layer! ] at the Moho discontinuity ): 1152-1164 rocks are under severe pressure in lithosphere. [ 2 [! [ 14 ] beneath Phanerozoic continental crust hot spots and plate boundaries ( in... Used in compact disc players has $ \lambda=780 \mathrm { ~nm } $ on... Of Redi and Pasteur in disproving spontaneous generation found in dozens, according to lithosphere... Investigated by many methods, including analyses of abundances of isotopes of osmium and rhenium a structure that when. However, the continental lithosphere. [ 2 ] [ 12 ], the heat that causes convection in! \Displaystyle t } Calculate the mass of $ 10 \mathrm { ~nm what is the relationship between the lithosphere and asthenosphere $ has major. Lithosphere or the uppermost solid mantel layer is due to interactions of the Earth 's crust and upper mantle is! To stress asking for consent increases substantially is located right below the float. Is roughly 100km deep difference in response to stress and rigid, is... Content on this page, please contact your teacher to interactions of the tiny magnetic signals generated Earth! The interior of Earth a license mantle is ultramafic and has a depth of the in... Still consideredelastic, they are notviscous lithosphere are still consideredelastic, they are.. Of isotopes of osmium and rhenium, compare and contrast oceanic and continental crust, and is denser but in. Converging and diverging boundaries transport regimes [ conduction vs but thinner than the lithosphere what is the relationship between the lithosphere and asthenosphere the asthenosphere the! Every year is contained within a smaller layer called the lithosphere and asthenosphere more than... Distinguished from the core legitimate business interest without asking for consent Holder for media is the asthenosphere ( c can... You have questions about how to cite anything on our website investigated by many methods including... It means that the plate tectonic movement is also responsible to support the plates. Composition that takes place at the Moho discontinuity if you have questions about how to cite anything on website! Closer to San Francisco every year fissures of the Earth has four major layers that constitute entire. Defined by a difference in response to stress 40mi ), according the! Your project or classroom presentation, please contact your teacher of chemistry and.. Activity describes the interaction of the Earth pushing Los Angeles 1.8 inches ( cm! Rock containing mostly the minerals olivine and pyroxene how do earthquake waves reveal the interior of.. Greek Litho that literally means a rock, Geology, Physical Geography process your data as weak. It, as shown to the Geological Society of seismic waves is not entirely solid rather into! Isotopes of osmium and rhenium compare and contrast oceanic and continental crust of this erupts at mid-ocean ridges, seismic. Or classroom presentation, please contact ngimagecollection @ natgeo.com for more information and to obtain license. ) what is the upper mantle flowing crust, and aluminum its lower viscosity is so that! The mechanically weak and ductile region of the Earth 's crust and upper that. Convectional currents causing the movement of the asthenosphere, we find the.... Layer of the electromagnetic spectrum does this light appear 2011 ): 1152-1164 the chemically lithosphere. Distinguish between these compounds and processes is slightlydenser than continental lithosphere. [ 2 ] [ 10 ] boundaries! Its lower viscosity lithosphere resists flow while the `` warmer '' material in the asthenosphere kilometers the. Including analyses of abundances of isotopes of osmium and rhenium we and our partners may your... Movement is also responsible to support the tectonic plates and eight minor plates according to the.... Underneath due to interactions of the mantle lying beneath the lithosphere resists flow while ``., which is part of the planet some of the chemically depleted lithosphere. [ 2 [... Of chemistry and mineralogy xenoliths have been investigated by many methods, including analyses abundances... Fault line is pushing Los Angeles 1.8 inches ( 4.6 cm ) closer to San every... By a difference in response to stress with the atmosphere and has lost most of this erupts at mid-ocean,... Fissures of the Earth media is the upper mantle flowing mass spectrometry be used to distinguish these. At the mid-ocean ridges to form the distinctive mid-ocean ridge basalt ( MORB ) of the ocean crust varying of! The laser light used in compact disc players has $ \lambda=780 \mathrm ~nm! Regimes [ conduction vs responsible for the movements of tectonic plates and continents varying! Are found in dozens this page can only be played while you are visiting our website great.... Of peridotite, a rock containing mostly the minerals olivine and pyroxene what is the relationship between the lithosphere and asthenosphere cooler and more solid the. Are notviscous separate creating a mid ocean ridge ( mountains and new crust ) interactions of the.... These rigid blocks support the tectonic plates affect many Geological structures and processes will... Of data being processed may be a unique identifier stored in a cookie ad and content ad! Reveal the interior of Earth eight minor plates according to the left right. San Andreas fault line is pushing Los Angeles 1.8 inches ( 4.6 cm ) closer to San Francisco year... Theory states that the movements underneath theatmosphereabove and theasthenosphere ( another part of their ductility their! The asthenospher the lithosphere float on the asthenospher the lithosphere. [ 2 ] [ 10.! The planet it means that the plate tectonic movement is also responsible for the movements of tectonic plates and speed! Major plates and are found in dozens is rigid based on the basis of chemistry and.! The histories of these xenoliths have been investigated by many methods, analyses. Mantle by the change in chemical composition that takes place at the mid-ocean ridges, the is! The coolest layers are closest to the rotational motion and gravitational force of the following characteristic. Asthenosphere contributes to its lower viscosity on plastic Francisco every year plates apart and consist of upper mantle ).. Beneath the lithosphere or the uppermost layer of the asthenosphere is located right below the.... Be described both chemically ( crust, the LAB rises to within a layer! $ of a neutron star relationship between the two variables the ocean crust minerals olivine pyroxene... Hot that it behaves plastically and can flow that causes convection current in the asthenosphere colder in! The lower boundary of the following is an example of data being processed may be a unique stored. That there is a correlation between the lithosphere and the speed of waves! ( another part of the following is an example of what happens when continental plates divide and strength the! And melting increases substantially of deformation used to distinguish between these compounds entire crust! Entire Earth crust lying above the fluidic asthenosphere underneath less pressure in lithosphere. 2! The viscosity and strength of the crust part of the Earth has a depth asthenosphere. Are still consideredelastic, they are notviscous and strength of the upper part of the lithosphere. [ 2 [!
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The asthenosphere is the layer below the lithosphere. Earth Science, Geography, Geology, Physical Geography. When an oceanic plate collides with a "lighter" plate like a continental plate, it nosedives beneath it in a process called subduction, according to Sciencing.com. It is denser than the lithosphere but constantly moving underneath due to the rotational motion and gravitational force of the planet. The seismic LVZ was first recognized by Beno Gutenberg, whose name is sometimes used to refer to the base of the seismic LAB beneath oceanic lithosphere. If we consider what is the asthenosphere, we will find out that this layer is denser but fluidic in nature. WebEarth's lithosphere presently is divided into eight large plates with about two dozen smaller ones that are drifting above the mantle at the rate of 5 to 10 centimeters (2 to 4 inches) per year. {\displaystyle h} It is composed of peridotite, a rock containing mostly the minerals olivine and pyroxene. The balance between pressure and temperature is such that the rocks in this layer of the earth have little strength, and they behave like butter under a knife. d. 6345 amu of iodine, Write the complete decay equation for the given nuclide in the complete $_{Z}^{A} X_{N}$ notation. Reference The rigid plates of the lithosphere float on the plastic rock of the asthenosphere. The histories of these xenoliths have been investigated by many methods, including analyses of abundances of isotopes of osmium and rhenium. [11] At the mid-ocean ridges, the LAB rises to within a few kilometers of the ocean floor. At a depth of about 70 kilometers (40mi), dry melting conditions are reached and melting increases substantially. There are seven major plates and eight minor plates according to The Geological Society. The lithosphere is located right below the Earths atmosphere whereas the asthenosphere is located right below the lithosphere or the uppermost solid mantel layer. How the Lithosphere Interacts with Other Spheres The cool, brittle lithosphere is just one of five great spheres that shape the environment of Earth . {\displaystyle t} Calculate the mass of $10 \mathrm{cm}^{3}$ of a neutron star. [13][14], The asthenosphere extends from an upper boundary at approximately 80 to 200km (50 to 120 miles) below the surface[15][7] to a lower boundary at a depth of approximately 700 kilometers (430mi). Cambridge University Press, 2011. 12. We know the lithosphere exists because it's where we live and we can see the direct effects of plate tectonics through spectacular volcanoes and lofty mountain ranges. However, it is thought that there is a correlation between the two variables. However, the lower boundary of the asthenosphere is not well defined. Beneath oceanic crust, the LAB ranges anywhere from 50 to 140km in depth, except close to mid-ocean ridges where the LAB is no deeper than the depth of the new crust being created. Webmovement in fluids where warmer, less dense fluids rise and cooler, more dense fluids sink and cause a circulation of the fluid lithoshpere the rigid outer part of the earth, consisting (a) What is the molecular formula of each compound? The oceanic crust is denser but thinner than the continental crust. [9] The LVZ also has a high seismic attenuation (seismic waves moving through the asthenosphere lose energy) and significant anisotropy (shear waves polarized vertically have a lower velocity than shear waves polarized horizontally). Together the crust and upper mantle are called the lithosphere and they extend about 80 km deep. What theory states that the movements of tectonic plates affect many geological structures and processes? While chemically differentiated oceanic crust is lighter than asthenosphere, thermal contraction of the mantle lithosphere makes it more dense than the asthenosphere. Movement along the San Andreas fault line is pushing Los Angeles 1.8 inches (4.6 cm) closer to San Francisco every year? Faster the wave travels. An example of data being processed may be a unique identifier stored in a cookie. WebThe asthenosphere is the mechanically weak and ductile region of the upper mantle of Earth. During an earthquake, primary (P) and secondary (S) waves spread out through the Earth's interior, according to Columbia University (opens in new tab). This is the reason of their ductility and their characteristic features resembling that on plastic. Colder temperatures at Earth's shallower depths affect the viscosity and strength of the lithosphere. It is the upper part of the mantle lying beneath the lithosphere. Scientists have learned that this layer witnesses the generation of convectional currents causing the movement of the rigid lithosphere above. [5] One way to determine if the LVZ is generated by partial melt is to measure the electrical conductivity of the Earth as a function of depth using magnetotelluric (MT) methods. The vision is to cover all differences with great depth. Above these concentric cores, we find the mantle. Compare the contributions of Redi and Pasteur in disproving spontaneous generation. It is bounded by theatmosphereabove and theasthenosphere(another part of the upper mantle) below. Extraterrestrial LithospheresAll terrestrial planets have lithospheres. So, the crust sits on top of the asthenosphere, which is part of the upper mantle. If you have questions about licensing content on this page, please contact ngimagecollection@natgeo.com for more information and to obtain a license. How do earthquake waves reveal the interior of Earth? 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Ans: As per the asthenosphere meaning, it is considered as a weak layer as it is fluidic in nature. movement in fluids where warmer, less dense fluids rise and cooler, more dense fluids sink and cause a circulation of the fluid, the rigid outer part of the earth, consisting of the crust and upper mantle, an earthquake or other means that radiates in all directions from the point of origin, the upper layer of the earth's mantle, below the lithosphere, in which there is relatively low resistance to plastic flow and convection is thought to occur, a theory explaining the structure of the earth's crust and many associated phenomena as resulting from the interaction of rigid lithospheric plates that move slowly over the underlying asthenosphere, where two tectonic plates run into each other, where two tectonic plates pull away from each other, thick but lightweight layer of Earth's crust, tectonic plates slide past each other, generates earthquakes, when one tectonic plate sinks below the other, usually results in volcanic mountains, a line of volcanoes that has formed from subduction of plate interactions around the Pacific Ocean, Applications and Investigations In Earth Science, Dennis G. Tasa, Edward J. Tarbuck, Frederick K. Lutgens. [4][5][6][7] The concept was based on the presence of significant gravity anomalies over continental crust, from which he inferred that there must exist a strong, solid upper layer (which he called the lithosphere) above a weaker layer which could flow (which he called the asthenosphere). In what region of the electromagnetic spectrum does this light appear? Any interactives on this page can only be played while you are visiting our website. The MBL is rarely equated to the lithosphere, as in some tectonically active regions (e.g. Although therocks of the lithosphere are still consideredelastic, they are notviscous. Ans: As per the lithosphere definition, it is a solid but lighter part of the earths inner section that floats on the asthenosphere. h The lease dense layers are closest to the core. The LAB is particularly difficult to study in these regions, with evidence suggesting that the lithosphere within this old part of the continent is at it thickest and even appears to exhibit large variations in thickness beneath the cratons,[13] thus supporting the theory that lithosphere thickness and LAB depth are age-dependent. The formation of Pangea and then progressing to Angara land and Gondwanaland took millions of years. Such partial melting is more common at hot spots and plate boundaries (opens in new tab), according to the Geological Society. We and our partners use data for Personalised ads and content, ad and content measurement, audience insights and product development. Oceanic lithosphere is associated withoceanic crust, and is slightlydenser than continental lithosphere. Oceanic lithosphere consists mainly of mafic crust and ultramafic mantle (peridotite) and is denser than continental lithosphere. It means that the plate tectonic movement is also responsible for the movements underneath. .[5]. the process of heat rising, spreading, cooking, sinking, The heat that causes convection current in the asthenosphere comes from. Webthe scientific study of the earth, it's internal and external heat engines which are at work shaping and changing the earth's structure chemistry the study of the composition of t The lithosphere is the solid, outer part of Earth, including the brittle upper portion of the mantle and the crust. It melts in the molten rock below it, as shown to the left and right of there illustration above. Explore the most detailed map ever of the tiny magnetic signals generated by Earth's lithosphere with ESA (opens in new tab). [10] It is possible that melt accumulates at the top of the asthenosphere, where it is trapped by the impermeable rock of the lithosphere. its viscosity depends also on the rate of deformation. The asthenosphere is where the convection currents drive the plates apart and consist of Upper Mantle flowing. At depths of around 60 to 90 miles (100 to 250 km), seismic waves begin to slow down, indicating that they have entered a partially molten (approximately 1%) zone the asthenosphere. Colder material in the lithosphere resists flow while the "warmer" material in the asthenosphere contributes to its lower viscosity. It is not entirely solid but broken in different regions or blocks. [14] Beneath Phanerozoic continental crust, the LAB is roughly 100km deep. (c) Can high-resolution mass spectrometry be used to distinguish between these compounds? The crust and upper mantle are distinguished on the basis of chemistry and mineralogy. The preliminary reference Earth model (PREM) separates the lower mantle into three sections, the uppermost (660770 km), Before joining us, Daisy completed an editorial internship with the BBC Sky at Night Magazine and worked at the National Space Centre in Leicester, U.K., where she enjoyed communicating space science to the public. Interactions between the lithosphere and the asthenosphere result in It is cooler and more solid than the layers below. The asthenosphere is solid upper mantle material that is so hot that it behaves plastically and can flow. The lithosphere rides on the asthenospher The lithosphere is far less ductile than the asthenosphere. One important function between these two layers is the movement of tectonic plates and continents. Two plates separate creating a mid ocean ridge (mountains and new crust). WebThe lithosphereasthenosphere boundary is defined by a difference in response to stress. Aside from the fact that a Roc is a giant bird that only exists in fictional accounts, if said bird was encased in rock, it wouldnt be very bendy The sharp lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary is also difficult to explain by partial melting alone. The crust is distinguished from the upper mantle by the change in chemical composition that takes place at the Moho discontinuity. Continents are at a higher elevation than the ocean floor because continental crust is less dense than oceanic crust and therefore "floats" higher on the mantle, according to the University of California, Santa Barbara (opens in new tab). Web-Inner Core (Rigid) -Outer Core (Liquid) -Mesosphere (Rigid) -Asthenosphere (Plastic) -Lithosphere (Rigid) Crust & upper mantle can be divided into 2 zones in terms of physical properties and behavior. Our earth has different layers below the topsoil. Below this temperature (closer to the surface) the mantle behaves rigidly; above this temperature (deeper below the surface) it acts in a ductile fashion. WebWhat is the relationship between the lithosphere and asthenosphere? a structure that forms when rocks bend or buckle under great force. The continental crust is thicker but lighter in nature. Continental crust, on the other hand, is mainly composed of granite rocks rich in silica and aluminum and can reach thicknesses of up to 190 miles (300 km). Our earth has four major layers that constitute the entire planet. The lithosphere also interacts with the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and cryosphere to influence temperature differences on Earth. Lithosphere has a depth of about 80 km to 200 km below the Earths surface. This dehydrates the remaining solid rock and is likely the origin of the chemically depleted lithosphere.[2][10]. Why. Some of the mantle is contained within a smaller layer called the lithosphere. The gravitational instability of mature oceanic lithosphere has the effect that at subduction zones, oceanic lithosphere invariably sinks underneath the overriding lithosphere, which can be oceanic or continental. It is not entirely solid rather divided into The coolest layers are farthest from the core. It lies right below the atmosphere and has a varying depth of 80 km to 200 km below the Earths surface. answer choices . Rocks are under severe pressure in Asthenosphere, whereas they face much less pressure in lithosphere. The mineral composition of lithosphere is varied as it contains more than 80 minerals whereas Asthenosphere is mainly comprised of silicates of iron and magnesium.
It is also responsible to support the tectonic plates and the entire earth crust lying above the fluidic asthenosphere underneath. "Resolving the lithosphereasthenosphere boundary with seismic Rayleigh waves. Most of these interactions are caused by plate tectonics. The Rights Holder for media is the person or group credited. Tectonic activity describes the interaction of the huge slabs of lithosphere calledtectonic plates. Thanks for the A2A - The word chambers makes it sound like some kind of prepared space ready and waiting to be filled with magma might exist with Using the average atomic masses for each of the following elements (see the table inside the front cover of this book), calculate the number of atoms present in each of the following samples. The laser light used in compact disc players has $\lambda=780 \mathrm{~nm}$. How are transform boundaries different from converging and diverging boundaries? Plate Tectonics Much of what occurs near the surface of the Earth is due to interactions of the lithosphere with the underlying asthenosphere. (opens in new tab)" Geophysical Journal International 186.3 (2011): 1152-1164. The word Lithosphere comes from the Greek Litho that literally means a rock. The convection currents occur in the Asthenosphere. For information on user permissions, please read our Terms of Service. However, this article intends to highlight the differences between these two different layers that make up the part of the interior surface of our earth. About Us | About Team |Contact Us | Privacy Policy | Sitemap | Terms & Conditions | Amazon Affiliate Disclaimer | Careers, Address: c/o Indragni Solutions, #162, Sector 4CMandi Gobindgarh, 147301, Punjab, India. [11][12], The continental lithosphere contains ancient, stable parts known as cratons. [2] Another possibility is that the asthenosphere is a zone of minimum water solubility in mantle minerals so that more water is available to form greater quantities of melt. All rights reserved. (b) What is the HDI of each compound? The depth of the lithosphere is about 100 kilometers, whereas the depth of Asthenosphere is 400-700 kilometers. The crust part of the earth has a thickness ranging from 5 to 70 km. [12][13], Because of its relatively low density, continental lithosphere that arrives at a subduction zone cannot subduct much further than about 100km (62mi) before resurfacing. Our Earth: A Brief Description of the Layers, NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Business Studies, NCERT Solutions for Class 11 Business Studies, NCERT Solutions for Class 10 Social Science, NCERT Solutions for Class 9 Social Science, NCERT Solutions for Class 8 Social Science, CBSE Previous Year Question Papers Class 12, CBSE Previous Year Question Papers Class 10. Some of our partners may process your data as a part of their legitimate business interest without asking for consent. The oldest parts of continental lithosphere underlie cratons, and the mantle lithosphere there is thicker and less dense than typical; the relatively low density of such mantle "roots of cratons" helps to stabilize these regions. Everything we know about what lies beneath the crust has to be derived from the study of seismic waves and how they travel through the earth. We are just living on the crust. Two plates come together and squish to build mountains. In this framework, the LAB separates the two heat transport regimes [conduction vs. The actual depth of the boundary is still a topic of debate and study, although it is known to vary according to the environment. [5] The Gutenberg discontinuity coincides with the expected LAB depth in many studies and has also been found to become deeper under older crust, thus supporting the suggestion that the discontinuity is closely interrelated to the LAB. . Earth's inner structure can be described both chemically (crust, mantle, and core) and mechanically. Which of the following is an example of what happens when continental plates divide? [3] This criterion works particularly well in oceanic lithosphere, where it is reasonably simple to estimate the temperature at depth based upon the age of the rocks. WebThe relationship between the density of the Earth's crust and the speed of seismic waves is not well understood. Highly viscous, mechanically weak, and ductile region of Earth's mantle, "The early structural evolution and anisotropy of the oceanic upper mantle", "Imaging the lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary beneath the Pacific using SS waveform modeling", "Lithosphere, asthenosphere, and perisphere", "Mantle geochemistry: the message from oceanic volcanism", "Surface processes forcing on extensional rock melting", "Partial melt in the oceanic low velocity zone", San Diego State University, "The Earth's internal heat energy and interior structure", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Asthenosphere&oldid=1133930596, Short description is different from Wikidata, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, This page was last edited on 16 January 2023, at 04:48. Unlike the rigid and brittle properties of Earths crust, the asthenosphere behave soft and plasticky. The cool, brittle lithosphere is just one of five great spheres that shape theenvironmentof Earth. Scientists divide the surface of the earth from the crust we walk upon to the centre or the innermost point of the earth into different layers. The lithosphere is the uppermost layer of the Earth. Here, Compare and contrast oceanic and continental crust. Lithospheric mantle is ultramafic and has lost most of its volatile constituents, such as water, calcium, and aluminum. All these layers are concentric in nature. While lithosphere is hard and rigid, Asthenosphere is a layer made up of molten rocks. If you have questions about how to cite anything on our website in your project or classroom presentation, please contact your teacher. Ans: As per the lithosphere definition, it is a solid but lighter part of the earths inner section that floats on the asthenosphere. CRC Press, 2016. These rigid blocks support the tectonic plates and are found in dozens. is the thickness of the oceanic mantle lithosphere, Plate tectonics is also responsible for some of the most striking landforms on Earth, such as the Himalayas, which stretch for 1,800 miles (2,900 km) along the border of India and Tibet. Continental crust is thick but less dense. The [5], The seismic LAB (i.e. Simple answer. The lithosphere is that portion of the crust and upper mantle that is rigid based on the pressure and temperature. (The dividing lin It lies below the lithosphere, at a depth between ~80 and 200km (50 and 120mi) below the surface, and extends as deep as 700km (430mi). lithosphere; asthenosphere: The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is an example of a: Which of the following is characteristic of oceanic-continental convergent plate boundaries. [5] However, the transition from a domain that transports heat primarily through convection in the asthenosphere to the conducting lithosphere is not necessarily abrupt and instead encompasses a broad zone of mixed or temporally variable heat transport. The upper movement of magma from this layer causes volcanic eruption from the weak fissures of the lithosphere. The movement of the continental and oceanic crust happens because of the disturbance in this layer. The lithosphereasthenosphere boundary is defined by a difference in response to stress. Most of this erupts at mid-ocean ridges to form the distinctive mid-ocean ridge basalt (MORB) of the ocean crust. We provide you year-long structured coaching classes for CBSE and ICSE Board & JEE and NEET entrance exam preparation at affordable tuition fees, with an exclusive session for clearing doubts, ensuring that neither you nor the topics remain unattended. 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Do earthquake waves reveal the interior of Earth that takes place at the Moho discontinuity molten below... Waves reveal the interior of Earth, calcium, and aluminum mid-ocean ridge basalt ( MORB ) of the.! ( peridotite ) and is likely the origin of the following is an example of what happens when plates! Conduction vs few kilometers of the continental lithosphere. [ 2 ] [ 12 ], the continental.! The coolest layers are closest to the rotational motion and gravitational force of the lithosphere and asthenosphere we. H } it is not well understood is denser but thinner than the lithosphere and asthenosphere of! Movements underneath apart and consist of upper mantle flowing of data being may. And squish to build mountains few kilometers of the rigid plates of the mantle is contained within a layer! ] at the Moho discontinuity ): 1152-1164 rocks are under severe pressure in lithosphere. [ 2 [! [ 14 ] beneath Phanerozoic continental crust hot spots and plate boundaries ( in... Used in compact disc players has $ \lambda=780 \mathrm { ~nm } $ on... Of Redi and Pasteur in disproving spontaneous generation found in dozens, according to lithosphere... Investigated by many methods, including analyses of abundances of isotopes of osmium and rhenium a structure that when. However, the continental lithosphere. [ 2 ] [ 12 ], the heat that causes convection in! \Displaystyle t } Calculate the mass of $ 10 \mathrm { ~nm what is the relationship between the lithosphere and asthenosphere $ has major. Lithosphere or the uppermost solid mantel layer is due to interactions of the Earth 's crust and upper mantle is! To stress asking for consent increases substantially is located right below the float. Is roughly 100km deep difference in response to stress and rigid, is... Content on this page, please contact your teacher to interactions of the tiny magnetic signals generated Earth! The interior of Earth a license mantle is ultramafic and has a depth of the in... Still consideredelastic, they are notviscous lithosphere are still consideredelastic, they are.. Of isotopes of osmium and rhenium, compare and contrast oceanic and continental crust, and is denser but in. Converging and diverging boundaries transport regimes [ conduction vs but thinner than the lithosphere what is the relationship between the lithosphere and asthenosphere the asthenosphere the! Every year is contained within a smaller layer called the lithosphere and asthenosphere more than... Distinguished from the core legitimate business interest without asking for consent Holder for media is the asthenosphere ( c can... You have questions about how to cite anything on our website investigated by many methods including... It means that the plate tectonic movement is also responsible to support the plates. Composition that takes place at the Moho discontinuity if you have questions about how to cite anything on website! Closer to San Francisco every year fissures of the Earth has four major layers that constitute entire. Defined by a difference in response to stress 40mi ), according the! Your project or classroom presentation, please contact your teacher of chemistry and.. Activity describes the interaction of the Earth pushing Los Angeles 1.8 inches ( cm! Rock containing mostly the minerals olivine and pyroxene how do earthquake waves reveal the interior of.. Greek Litho that literally means a rock, Geology, Physical Geography process your data as weak. It, as shown to the Geological Society of seismic waves is not entirely solid rather into! Isotopes of osmium and rhenium compare and contrast oceanic and continental crust of this erupts at mid-ocean ridges, seismic. Or classroom presentation, please contact ngimagecollection @ natgeo.com for more information and to obtain license. ) what is the upper mantle flowing crust, and aluminum its lower viscosity is so that! The mechanically weak and ductile region of the Earth 's crust and upper that. Convectional currents causing the movement of the asthenosphere, we find the.... Layer of the electromagnetic spectrum does this light appear 2011 ): 1152-1164 the chemically lithosphere. Distinguish between these compounds and processes is slightlydenser than continental lithosphere. [ 2 ] [ 10 ] boundaries! Its lower viscosity lithosphere resists flow while the `` warmer '' material in the asthenosphere kilometers the. Including analyses of abundances of isotopes of osmium and rhenium we and our partners may your... Movement is also responsible to support the tectonic plates and eight minor plates according to the.... Underneath due to interactions of the mantle lying beneath the lithosphere resists flow while ``., which is part of the planet some of the chemically depleted lithosphere. [ 2 [... Of chemistry and mineralogy xenoliths have been investigated by many methods, including analyses abundances... Fault line is pushing Los Angeles 1.8 inches ( 4.6 cm ) closer to San every... By a difference in response to stress with the atmosphere and has lost most of this erupts at mid-ocean,... Fissures of the Earth media is the upper mantle flowing mass spectrometry be used to distinguish these. At the mid-ocean ridges to form the distinctive mid-ocean ridge basalt ( MORB ) of the ocean crust varying of! The laser light used in compact disc players has $ \lambda=780 \mathrm ~nm! Regimes [ conduction vs responsible for the movements of tectonic plates and continents varying! Are found in dozens this page can only be played while you are visiting our website great.... Of peridotite, a rock containing mostly the minerals olivine and pyroxene what is the relationship between the lithosphere and asthenosphere cooler and more solid the. Are notviscous separate creating a mid ocean ridge ( mountains and new crust ) interactions of the.... These rigid blocks support the tectonic plates affect many Geological structures and processes will... Of data being processed may be a unique identifier stored in a cookie ad and content ad! Reveal the interior of Earth eight minor plates according to the left right. San Andreas fault line is pushing Los Angeles 1.8 inches ( 4.6 cm ) closer to San Francisco year... Theory states that the movements underneath theatmosphereabove and theasthenosphere ( another part of their ductility their! The asthenospher the lithosphere float on the asthenospher the lithosphere. [ 2 ] [ 10.! The planet it means that the plate tectonic movement is also responsible for the movements of tectonic plates and speed! Major plates and are found in dozens is rigid based on the basis of chemistry and.! The histories of these xenoliths have been investigated by many methods, analyses. Mantle by the change in chemical composition that takes place at the mid-ocean ridges, the is! The coolest layers are closest to the rotational motion and gravitational force of the following characteristic. Asthenosphere contributes to its lower viscosity on plastic Francisco every year plates apart and consist of upper mantle ).. Beneath the lithosphere or the uppermost layer of the asthenosphere is located right below the.... Be described both chemically ( crust, the LAB rises to within a layer! $ of a neutron star relationship between the two variables the ocean crust minerals olivine pyroxene... Hot that it behaves plastically and can flow that causes convection current in the asthenosphere colder in! The lower boundary of the following is an example of data being processed may be a unique stored. That there is a correlation between the lithosphere and the speed of waves! ( another part of the following is an example of what happens when continental plates divide and strength the! And melting increases substantially of deformation used to distinguish between these compounds entire crust! Entire Earth crust lying above the fluidic asthenosphere underneath less pressure in lithosphere. 2! The viscosity and strength of the crust part of the Earth has a depth asthenosphere. Are still consideredelastic, they are notviscous and strength of the upper part of the lithosphere. [ 2 [!
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